Beyond feelings A Guide to Critical Thinking NINTH EDITION(n,版本)
Vincent Ryan Ruggiero Professor Emeritus of Humanities State University of New York Delhi
Connect(v,连接) learn succeed
To the memory of Haward Trumble,whose Quiet(a,肃静的,v,平静) practice(n,实行,做法) of the skills(n,技巧 知识) detailed(a,详细的,复杂的) in this Book was an inspiration(n,灵感,吸气,鼓舞) To me, to his family(n,家族,门阀), and to all who knew(know的过去式)him.
Contents Perce ix
Introduction(n,导入,推广)
PART ONE The Context(n,上下文)
Chapter 1 Who Are You?
The Influence of Time and Place
The Influence of Ideas(念头,**)
The Influence of Mass(群众) Culture
The “Science” of Manipulation(操作,手法)
The Influence of Psychology(心理学)
Becoming an Individual(特殊的 个人的 )
Chapter 2 What Is Critical Thinking?
Mind(心力 注意 愿望), Brain(大脑 打破), or Both(两者)?
Critical Thinking Defined(给…下定义)
Characteristics(特性) of Critical Thinkers
The Role(角色 任务) of Intuition(直感)
Basic(基础的) Activities(活动) in Critical Thinking
Critical Thinking and Writing(写字,著作)
Critical Thinking and Discussion(争论,辩论,详述)
Avoiding(避免,撤销,驱除) Plagiarism(文章,学说的剽窃)
Chapter 3 What Is Truth? Where(在哪里,在…的地方) Does It All Begin? Imperfect(不完整的,减弱的) perception(感觉,洞察) Imperfect Memory(记忆,回忆) Deficient(不足的,不完全的) Information(通知,报道,起诉) Even the Wisest Can Err Truth Is Discovered(发现,显现), Not Created(创造,产生) Understanding Cause and Effect Chapter 4 What Does It Mean to Know? Requirements(要求,必要条件) of Knowing Testing(考察,检验) Your Own Knowledge(知识,学识,了解) How We Come to Know Why Knowing Is Diffcult A Cautionary Tale Is Faith a Form of Knowledge? Obstacles to Knowledge Chapter 5 How Good Are Your Opinions? Opinions(意见 判定) Can Be Mistaken(错误的) Opinions on Moral(道德上的) Issues Even(即 平均的) Experts(老手 专家) Can Be Wrong Kinds(种,类,厚道的) of Errors(错误,谬误,罪过)
Informed(有学识的) Versus(与…相对) Uninformed Opinion(意见,鉴定,舆论)
Forming Opinions Responsibly(有责任的,懂道理的)
Chapter 6 What Is Evidence(根据,证明,显示)? Kinds of Evidence Evaluating(对..的评估) Evidence What Constitutes(构成,制定,引起,等于) Sufficient(充分的,有能力的) Evidence? Chapter 7 What is Argument(争论,情节,中项)? The Parts of an Argument Evaluating Arguments More Difficult(困难的,执拗的) Arguments
PART TWO The Pitfalls(陷阱,圈套,诱惑) Chapter 8 The Basic Problem :”Mine Is Better” Egocentric(自我中心的,利己的) People Ethnocentric(民族中心主义的) People Controlling(管理,监督,检查)“Mine-Is-Better”Thinking Chapter 9 Errors of Perspective(透视的,洞察力,观点) Poverty(贫穷,缺乏,低劣) of Aspect(问题的方面,局势,容貌) Unwarranted(无保证的,未经授权的) Assumptions(假设,傲慢,小前提) The Either/Or Outlook(景色,前途,眼界) Mindless(无心的) Conformity(遵从,相似,整合) Absolutism(专制主义,绝对主义) Relativism(相对性,相对主义) Bias(成见,倾向) for or Against(反对,相反,在…之时) Change(改变,变化) Chapter 10 Errors of Procedure(程序,行为,进行) Biased Consideration(考虑,尊敬) of Evidence Double Standard Hasty(仓促的,急促的) Conclusion(终结,商定) Over generalization(概念,一般化) and Stereotyping(成规,使固定) Oversimplification(过分简单化) The Post(标杆,信箱) Hoc Fallacy(谬误) Chapter 11 Errors of Expression(表现,腔调) Contradiction(反驳,矛盾) Arguing(争论,辩论) in a Circle(旋转,围,圆环) Mistaken(误解了的,错误的) Analogy(类比,模拟) False(错误,虚伪的,贩卖的) Analogy Irrational(不合理的,荒谬的) Appeal(呼吁,诉求,魅力) Chapter 12 Errors of Reaction(反馈,反动,反击) Automatic(自动的,自动装置) Rejection(拒绝,驳回,阻碍) Changing(改变,改革) the Subject(受…支配的,论题,科目) Shifting(转移,诡诈的) the Burden(负荷,责任,重点) of Proof(证据,检验) Straw(稻草,一点点) Man Attacking(攻击,着手) the Critic(批评家,鉴定家) Chapter 13 The Errors in Combination(结合,共谋) Errors of Perspective(透视的,远景,配合) Errors of Procedure Errors of Reaction Sample(样品,榜样) Combinations(合谋,同党) of Errors A sensible(可察觉的,易感的) View(观察,眺望) of Terminology(专门名词,术语学)
PART THREE A Strategy(战略学,策略) Chapter 14 Knowing Yourself Critical Thinking Inventory(清单,存盘,编制) Using Your Inventory Challenge and Reward(报酬,惩罚) Chapter 15 Being Observant(注意,盯着) Observing(观察敏锐的) People Observation(观察,瞭望) in Science and Medicine(医药,内科,情报) The Range of Application(运用,申请,勤勉) Becoming(适合,相当的) More Observations Chapter 16 Selecting(挑选,极好的) an Issue The Basic Rule(规则,控制,**): Less(较少的,更少) Is More How to Limit(限制,减少) an Issue Sample Issue: Pornography(色情文学,电影,风俗志) Sample Issue: Boxing(拳击,装箱,木材) Sample Issue: Juvenile(青少年的,幼稚的) crime(犯罪,蠢事) Narrowing(狭窄的,限制,偏见) the Issue Further(更多的,促进)
Chapter 17 Conducting(行为,带领,引导) Inquiry(询问,追究,调查) Working with Inconclusive(不确定的,无效的) Results(结果,归结于) Where to Look for Information(通知,起诉,资料) Keeping(保持,协调,一致) Focused(聚焦) How Much Inquiry(询问,追究,调查) IS Enough? Managing(处理,首脑的) Lengthy(冗长的) Material(物质的,本质的,材料)
Chapter 18 Forming(构成,排队) a Judgment Evaluating(对…评估) Evidence(证据,显示) Evaluating Your Sources’ Arguments Making Important(重要的,优越的) Distinctions(区分,特征,清晰度) Expressing(表示,快速的,专门的) Judgments
Chapter 19 Persuading(说服,使相信) Others Guidelines for Persuasion(说服,信仰,性别,阶级) An Un persuasive(劝导性的,动机) Presentation(授予,表现,展示) A Persuasive Presentation
NOTES
INDEX
Peface When the first edition(版本) of this book appeared(出现,出版,发表) in 1975, the dominant(支配的,主因的,显性的) intel - lectual focus was still subjectivity(主观性,主观), feelings. That focus, the legacy(传统,遗产,老化的) of the 1960s, was originally(本来,第一,独创地) a necessary(必要的,必须的) reaction(反作用,反击) to the rationalism(理性主义) and behave(开动,表现,得体)- iorism that preceded(领先于,在…之上,优于) it . It declared(公开宣称的), in effect(结果,影响,产生,完成) :”People are not robots. They are more than the sum(总数,概略) total(完全地,合计) of their physiology(生理学,机能). They have hopes, dreams, emotions(情感,感动). No two humans(人类,凡人皆有的) are alike(相同,一样) –each(每,各) has a special perspective(透视的,观点,希望), a unique(独特的,唯一的) way of perceiving(察觉,领会,看出) the world. And any(一个,一些,哪个) View of humanity(人类,人性,博爱) that ignores(忽视,抹杀,驳回) this subjective(主观的,主格的) side(旁,边,支持) is a distortion(歪扭,篡改).” Yet, despite(恶意,憎恨,不管) its value(价值,给…评价), the focus on feeling went(go的过去式) too far(久远的,远隔的).Like many other movements(变动,运动,输送), what began(being的过去式) as a reaction(反应,反作用) against(反对,相反,在…之时) an extreme(极端的) view became(become的过去式) an extreme view itself. The result of that extremism(极端主义) was the neglect(轻视,忽略) of thinking. This book was designed(设计好的,故意的) to answer that neglect. The introduction(导入,推广,前奏) to the first edition explained(说明,解释) its rationale(理论的说明,基本原理) as follows(跟着,领悟): The emphasis(强调,显著) on subjectivity(主观) served(服务) to correct(正确的,调整) a dangerous oversimplifi-cation. But it is the kind of reaction that cannot be sustained(持续的) for long without(在…之外,除非) causing(原因,问题) an even(平均,傍晚) worse(更坏的,bad的比较级) situation(形式,状况,职业)—the neglect of thinking. Worse for two reasons. First, because we live(生存,活着,度过) in an age of manipulation(操作,手法,操纵). Armies(陆军,团体) of hucksters(讨价还价,行商) and demagogues(煽动者) stand(站立,忍受) ready with the rich resources (资源,方法)of psy-chology to play upon our emotions and subconscious(潜意识) needs to persuade(说服) us that superficial(表面的,肤浅的) is profound(深远的,谦恭的), harmful(有害的) is beneficial, evil(邪恶的) is virtuous. And feelings are especially(特别) Vulnerable(易受伤的) to such(这样的) manipulation(操作手法). Secondly, because in virtually(实际上) every important(重要的,优越的) area(范围,地区) of modern(近代的) life –Law, medicine, government, education, science, business, and community(社区,乡镇,共同体) affairs(事务,事态)—we are beset(包围,缠绕) with serious(严肃的,认真的) problems and complex(复杂,化合物) issues(结果,出版,论点) that demand(要求,需求) careful(注意的,精心的) gathering(聚集,搜集,捐赠) and weighing(衡量,称量) of facts(事实,论据) and informed (有学识的)opinions(意见,判定), thoughtful(认真思考的,细心的) consideration(考虑,理由,原因) of various(不同的,多样的) conclusions(结论,商定) or actions, and judi-cious selection(选择,分离) of the best conclusion or most(非常,最) appropriate(善用,充用) action(动作,举动,对…提起诉讼)… [Today’s college student] has been conditioned(有条件的) not to undervalue(把…价值低估) subjectivity(主观性,主观), but to overvalue(过于重视,估计过高) it. And so he does not need to have his feelings indulged(纵情,迁就,特权). Rather, he needs to be taught(teach的过去式过去分词) how to sort(种类,分选) out his feelings, decide(决定,裁决) to what extent(广度,扣押,外延)(他们) they have been shaped(形状,设计,构成) by external(外部的,肤浅的) influences, and evaluate them carefully(注意的,细致的) when they conflict(纷争,冲突) among themselves or with the feelings of others. In short(简短的,抛空的), he needs to be taught to think critically. * There is an unfortunate(不幸的,;令人遗憾的) tendency(倾向,性情) among many to view(观察,眺望) feeling and thought as mutually(相互的) exclusive(除外,独家), to force(暴力,强制) a choice(选择) between them. If we focus on one, then(那时,然后) in their view we must reject(拒绝,驳回) the other. But this is mis-taken(错误的). Feeling and thought(**,推断能力) are perfectly complementary(充足的,互补的). Feeling, being more spontaneous(自发的,本能的), is an excellent(优秀的,优良的) beginning(初,开始,本原) to the development of con-clusions. And thought, being more deliberant, provides(为做准备,做准备) a way to identify(确定,使…等同于) the best and most appropriate(适当的,充用) feeling. Both are natural. Thinking, however, is less(更少的,较少) automatic(自动的,机械的) than feeling. To do it well demands(需求,询问) a systematic(系统的,一贯的) approach(探讨,接近) and guided(有领导的,制导的) practice(实行,练习). The general attitude toward(朝,走向) thinking has changed considerably since the mid-1970s. The view that critical thinking is an important skill(技巧,本领) to which(哪个,哪些) education should give prominence(凸起,显著) is no longer a minority(少数,未成年时期) view. Hundreds(百,许多) of voices(语声) have joined the chorus(合唱,齐颂) calling(呼叫,点名) for the addition(附加) of critical thinking objectives(客观的,无偏见的) to existing(存在的,现行的) courses(进程,追,程序,行动) and even(平的,同一的,平均) the creation(发生,创造) of special courses in thinking. There(在那一点上,那里) is little disagreement(不一致,差异) that the challenges(挑战,引起,提议) of the new millennium(一千年间) demand(要求,询问,召唤) minds that can move beyond feelings to clear(清澈的,畅通的,离开), impartial(公平的,无私的), critical problem solving(解释,调停) and decision(决心,判决) making(制作,组织).
Features of This Edition This edition of beyond Feeling retains(保留,维持) the basic organization(组织,编制,团体) of previous(以前的,过早的) editions(版本,翻版). The first section(截口,部,小分队) explains(解释,说明) the psychological(心理学上的), philosophical(哲学的), and social context(关节,上下文) in which(哪个,哪些) critical thinking takes(拿,取,吸入) place and describes(记述) the habits(举止,习惯) and attitudes(姿势,态度) that enhance(增加,宣扬) such(那样的) thinking. The second section helps students recognize and overcome(打败,客服)on errors in thinking. The third section provides a step-by-step strategy(战略,策略)dealing with issues. Within(在…内,不超过) the overall(工作服,全面的) design(计划,企图,设计), however, I have made a number of changes(改变,兑换), most in response(回答,感应) to the helpful suggestions(提议,暗示) of reviewers(评论家,检阅者). In Chapter 1, a new section—“The Influence of Ideas”—has been added(获得,增加). In Chaptter 3, a new section – “Understanding Cause and Effect”— has been added. In Chapter 15, new examples of the value of observation(观察,瞭望) have been added. In Chapter 17, the subsection(小节,分队) “Evaluate(对…评估) your information(通知,报道) sources(源头,出处,血统)” has been expanded(膨胀的,被延展的). A number of new “Difference of Opinion” exercises(执行,演习,运动) have added. As in the past, I have attempted(企图,诱惑) to follow George Orwell’s sage(聪明的) advice: “Never use a foreign(外国的,外交的,无关的) phrase(措辞,把…叫做…), a scientific(科学的,有系统的) word, or a jargon(行话,黑话) word if you can think of an everyday English equivalent(相当的,同等物).” This is not always easy. When logicians are taught terms(期限,学期) such as argumentum(向辩手作人身攻击而不回答其论点) ad hominem, non sequitur, and “affirming(断言,证明) the consequent(必然的,顺向的),” they naturally want to use then(此外,然后,加上). Arguments(论据,情节) for doing so urge(推进,刺激) themselves upon us: for example, “These(这些) are the most precise(准确的,清晰的) terms. Don’t join the ranks(列,士兵,排列) of the coddlers and deprive(剥夺,免职) students of them. For example, I weak(柔软的,脆弱的) moments(时刻,场合,危机) I succumb(屈服) to this appeal(呼吁,要求,魅力). (Until the previous(在…前) edition, for example, I included(包入的,内藏的) the term enthymeme. Mea culpa(过失,舒服,犯罪)… there(在那边,那里) I go again.)But is the precision(严格,精密) of such terms the real reason for my wanting(短缺的,不足的) to use them? Is it not possible that we professors(专家,教授) enjoy(享受) parading(游行,标榜,陈列) our knowledge or that we are reluctant(厌恶的,不情愿的) to spare(节省,多余) our students the struggle(努力,挣扎,奋斗) we were forced(强迫的,用力的) to undergo(经受,遭受)(“We suffered(遭受,允许), so they should too”)? It seems to me that modern(现代) culture already pro-vides too many impediments(妨碍,障碍物) to criticial thinking for us to add more. Is it possible to carry this plain language commitment too far? Yes, and some will think t have done so in avo